Review Questions and Answers

Chapter 15 – Exercise and Psychological Health

Abnormality and Illness

1) List five ways of defining abnormality and say what is wrong with them.

i) Statistical infrequency: in this definition the rarer something is the more abnormal it is considered. However, many wonderful things are statistically infrequent, such as great minds and elite athletes, but are not classified as abnormal.
ii) Violation of norms: if something violates social norms and makes observers feel anxious it is deemed abnormal. It is very hard to know what these norms are and also this will depend on how easily people feel threatened in differing environments. This definition also makes it hard for something to be deemed abnormal in a tolerant society.
iii) Personal distress: if a behaviour causes distress it is seen as abnormal. However, as many abnormal things do not cause distress, this definition is not accurate.
iv) Disability or dysfunction: most individuals would take the viewpoint that it is wholly inappropriate to call a disabled person abnormal.
v) Unexpectedness: something that is unexpected could be termed surprising but not abnormal.

2) How rare is mental illness?

Mental illness is not as rare as most people would think or like to believe. This largely comes through ignorance and a lack of understanding of mental illness. Just because someone does not have psychiatric symptoms such as voices in their head or suicidal tendencies does not mean they do not suffer from some form of mental illness. Mental illness could be sadness, tension, depression, anxiety or sleeping problems. In fact three out of five visits to a GP in the UK are related to mental health issues.

3) What is mental illness?

TOLD NOT TO ANSWER

Body Image

1) Which groups of people are often susceptible to harming themselves by being overconcerned with body image?

It appears that very active people are at most risk from harming themselves by being overconcerned with their body image due to the huge pressures to maintain an ideal body. It has been noted that 64% of fitness instructors were dissatisfied with their bodies (Nardini, 1998) and there has been an increase in men diagnosed with anorexia and muscle dismorphia, primarily body builders striving for their perceived perfect physique. Similarly female athletes often succumb to what has been termed the female athletic triad of disorders – eating disorders, osteoporosis and amenorrhea.

2) How do we measure body image?

The measurement of body image generally involves two components:

i) Perceptual component: also known as size perception accuracy. Subjects match the distance between two points with their own estimations of their body size or a given size. Can also be measured by using figures of different body sizes and asking individuals to choose which one they perceive to be closest to their own.
ii) Subjective component: this refers to the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction felt about the body’s function and appearance. This can be measured using questionnaires and comparing actual and ideal body sizes.

3) To what extent can we improve body image with physical exercises?

Many studies have been used to show that people who are more physically active are more satisfied with their bodies. Bartlewski (1996) showed that women who began taking an aerobics class showed decreased anxiety about their bodies, similarly Lox (1995) showed an increase in perceived physical appearance by HIV infected males in groups carrying out both aerobic and weight training. Not all studies have shown these effects but it is accepted that physical activity can improve body image.

4) How related are body image and self-esteem?

By the age of 11 children have begun to rate aspects of their physical appearance and have formed opinions on if they are attractive or not. This perception of appearance is the strongest correlate of self-esteem for boys and girls. The expensive and unhealthy use of steroids, cosmetic surgery and sunbeds show that these correlations do not change in adulthood. Secord and Jourard (1953) theorised that status and security depends on the perceived attractiveness of an individual and that if someone does not consider themself to be attractive, their self-esteem will be lowered. Through a series of surveys they were able to show a correlation between body image scores and self-concept scores. Guinn (1997) supported these findings by discovering a negative relationship between body fatness and self-esteem in female adolescents. So it is clear body image and self-esteem are related, and nearly anyone can appreciate this as we all try to hide our bad parts and show off the parts of our bodies we perceive to be attractive.

5) Are there any gender differences in body image?

It is assumed that women show more concern about their body image then men, and although this is still largely true, we can observe a change occurring through the appearance of grooming and cosmetic ranges aimed solely at men. Women still show more concern, however, and exercise for appearance-related reasons more than men do. Similarly, when surveyed women show more body dissatisfaction then men.

Self-Esteem, Sport and Exercise

1) What kind of exercise improves self-esteem the most?
Cardiovascular and resistance-based training give rise to the greatest improvements in self-esteem ratings, with swimming, flexibility training, martial arts and dance having little effect. The exercise environment is also important, but there is little research in this area.

1) What are the signs and symptoms of depression?

Any of the following:

• Unhappiness
• Worthlessness
• Poor self-esteem
• Feeling you are unattractive or unloved
• Loss of interest in usual pursuits
• Loss of interest in personal hygiene and appearance
• Sadness
• Sigh, moan and complain a lot
• Lack concentration
• Low appetite
• Low energy
• Anxiety
• Disturbed sleep

2) What causes depression?

Low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin are generally accepted as the cause of depression, giving less effective transmission between synapses which leads to the symptoms observed. Many stressful life events such as bereavement, loss of employment or serious injury can bring this about but scientists are still not entirely sure as to why these types of events are linked with serotonin depletion.

3) How successful is the use of sport and exercise in treating depression?

It has been shown that undertaking physical activity has a positive effect on the symptoms of depression. There is good evidence to support the prescription of exercise to sufferers but more research in the area is still required.

Self-Efficacy

1) In what way is self-efficacy different from self-esteem?

Self-efficacy refers to how an individual rates their capability at a certain task, while self-esteem refers to an individual’s overall view of their self worth.

2) What is a transcendental achievement and how do we attain one?

A transcendental achievement is regarded as an achievement no one else has ever attained before, an almost unattainable target. So obviously to attain one we must do something that no other has previously done. Key to this equation is belief in your ability to reach this target.

3) In what ways is self-efficacy important to exercise adherence?

Individuals with weak self-efficacy have been shown to produce high drop-out rates from physical activity programs, particularly if they have unrealistic beliefs about the speed at which the benefits of exercise will occur. Those with high self-efficacy will maintain their exercise routines even with a decreasing physical ability.

Injury and Recovery from Injury

1) Describe why sports people get injured without considering the nature of the sport they play.

Sports people get injured for many reasons unrelated to the nature of their sport, such as:

• Coaching
• Poor fitness
• Improper use of equipment
• Environmental factors

Ogilvie and Tutko (1966) also outlined aspects of personality that can be related to injury:

• Masochistic tendencies
• Determination to punish others
• Escape from competition
• Fear of success
• Need for sympathy
• Avoidance of training

2) Write a psychological strategy to enable an injured athlete to recover.

There is no real right or wrong answer here but answers should include some of the following aspects:

• Prevent frustration, boredom and loss of self-esteem
• Maintain a good level of self-efficacy
• Set goals in line with standardised techniques
• Implement mental imagery and rehearsal to aid rehabilitation
• Provide lots of social support

The End of a Sporting Career

1) Devise a strategy based on the theories described in this section to help an athlete come to terms with the end of a career.

There is no definitive answer but an answer but should include:

• Based on activity theory the athlete should maintain some level of physical activity to fill the gaps left by the absence of a sporting career. This will maintain self-concept and life satisfaction.
  
  
• According to subculture theory it would be good for the athlete to maintain contact with friends made through their sport, or make new friends in a new context.
  
  
• A new challenge to replace the sporting one to prevent a sense of failure is supported by the continuity theory and the social breakdown theory.

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